Identi?cationandanalysisofbarriersinimplementation
ofsolarenergyinIndianruralsectorusingintegratedISM
andfuzzyMICMACapproach
SonalSindhua,n,VijayNehraa,1,SunilLuthrab,n
a
bDepartmentofElectronicsandCommunicationEngineering,BhagatPhoolSinghMahilaVishwavidyalaya,KhanpurKalan131035,Sonepat,Haryana,IndiaDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,GovernmentPolytechnic,Jhajjar124103,Haryana,India
articleinfo
Articlehistory:
Received11June2015
Receivedinrevisedform
20March2016
Accepted16April2016
Availableonline30April2016
Keywords:
Solarenergy
Indianruralsector
Barriers
Integratedmodel
InterpretiveStructuralModeling(ISM)
FuzzyMatriced’ImpactsCroise’sMulti-
plicationApplique′eaUNClassement
(FMICMAC)abstractEnergyisthekeycomponentinsocialandeconomicdevelopmentofacountry.Itplaysapivotalroleinbuildingthenationandaccomplishmentofthemissionssuchas“MakeinIndia”,“SwachhBharatMission”,“Start-upIndia”,“DigitalIndia”and“AgriculturalSustainability”.Indeed,morethan70%ofIndianpopulationresidesinruralsectorsandagriculturaloutcomebeingtheironlysourceofincome.DeprivationofenergyinruralsectorandincreasingenergydemandsinurbanareaiscompellingIndiatoexploitRenewableEnergyResources(RES)andreduceusageoffossilfuels.Solarpowerinstallationsplayapivotalroleinthisdirection.AlthougheffortsareunderwayforsolarenergyimplementationinruralIndiabutstillRenewableEnergyTechnologies(RET)lackpopularityduetovariousobstaclesthathinderitsdiffusionatgrassrootlevel.Inthiscontext,barriersofsolarpowerinstallationinIndianruralsectorhavebeenrecognizedusingextensiveliteraturesurveyandexperts’input.Inthepresentinvestigation,InterpretiveStructuralModeling(ISM)methodologyintegratedwithfuzzyMICMACisutilizedtoidentifytheinterrelationshipamongtheidenti?edbarriers.Moreover,rankingsoftheidenti?edbarriershavealsobeenobtained.‘SocialandEnvironmentalbarriers’havebeenidenti?edasdependentbarrierswhile‘MarketingandPolicybarriers’emergedoutasindependent
barrierswhichneedstobeaddressed.Thedevelopedintegratedstructuredmodelwillbebene?cialin
understandingtheinterrelationshipanddependenciesamongtheidenti?edbarriersinthediffusionand
adoptionofsolarenergyinIndianruralsector.
&2016ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
Contents
1.
2.Introduction..............................................1.1.Researchobjectives..................................India'scurrentscenarioinenergysector.......................
2.1.StatusofsolarenergyinIndia.........................
2.2.Needofsolarpowerinruralcontext....................
2.3.Usesofsolarpowerinruralareas......................717272737374Abbreviations:RE,renewableenergy;PV,photovoltaic;RES,RenewableEnergySource;RET,RenewableEnergyTechnologies;JNNSM,JawaharlalNehruNationalSolarMission;MNRE,MinistryofNewandRenewableEnergy;BOS,BalanceofSystem;GoI,GovernmentofIndia;NISE,NationalInstituteofSolarEnergy;SEC,SolarEnergyCentre;SET,SolarEnergyTechnology;R&D,Research&Development;ICT,InformationCommunicationTechnology;EVA,EthyleneVinylAcetate;PMMA,PolyMethylMethAcrylate;ISM,InterpretiveStructuralModeling;CSP,ConcentratedSolarPower;SHS,SolarHomeSystem;MICMAC,Matriced’ImpactsCroise’sMultiplicationApplique′eaUNClassement;FMICMAC,FuzzyMatriced’ImpactsCroise’sMultiplicationApplique′eaUNClassement;IREDA,IndianRenewableEnergyDevelopmentAgency;NGO,Non-GovernmentalOrganization;NAPCC,NationalActionPlanonClimateChange;SERAC,SolarEnergyResearchAdvisoryCouncil;NASA,NationalAeronauticsandSpace
Administration;SSIM,structuralself-interactionmatrix;DRM,directrelationshipmatrix;FDRM,fuzzydirectrelationshipmatrix;IPCC,IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange;SEM,structuralequationmodeling;SDM,SystemDynamicsModeling;AHP,AnalyticalHierarchicalModeling;ANP,analyticalnetworkprocess;IRP,interpretiverankingprocess;IM,interactivemanagement;GUI,GraphicalUser
E-mailaddresses:sonalpunia8687@gmail.com(S.Sindhu),nehra_vijay@yahoo.com(V.Nehra),sunilluthra1977@gmail.com(S.Luthra).
1Tel.:t919255229582.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.033
1364-0321/&2016ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–8871
3.
Identi?cationofbarriersofsolarenergydeployment................743.1.Investmentbarriers.....................................74
3.1.1.Requirementofhighinitialcapitalcost..............743.1.2.Longerpaybackperiod...........................75
3.2.Technicalbarriers......................................75
3.2.1.Lowef?ciency..................................753.2.2.Reliabilityissues.................................753.2.3.Requirementofstoragedevice.....................753.2.4.Unavailabilityofpropersolarradiationdata..................................................................753.2.5.Lackofskilledprofessionalsandtraininginstitutes.............................................................753.2.6.Lackoffocusedresearchanddevelopment...................................................................76
3.3.Financialbarriers.......................................76
3.3.1.Lackoflocalfacilitiesandinfrastructuralissues...............................................................763.3.2.Lackofproper?nancingfacilities...................76
3.4.Socialandenvironmentalbarriers.........................76
3.4.1.Environmentalimplications.......................763.4.2.Reluctanceofpeopletonewtechnology.............763.4.3.Safetyimplications...............................77
3.5.Marketingandpolicybarriers.............................77
3.5.1.Marketuncertainties.............................773.5.2.Institutionalissues...............................773.5.3.Policyandregulatorybarriers......................77
4.Researchmethodology........................................78
4.1.InterpretiveStructuralModeling(ISM):overview.............78
4.1.1.ISMdevelopmentalsteps.........................784.1.2.Structuralself-interactionmatrix:formation..................................................................784.1.3.Formationofreachabilitymatrix...................794.1.4.Levelspartitioning...............................794.1.5.ISMmodeldevelopment..........................804.1.6.Barrierclassi?cation:MICMACanalysis..............81
5.FMICMAC:briefoverview......................................81
5.1.Synthesisofdirectrelationshipmatrix(DRM)................825.2.Developmentoffuzzydirectrelationshipmatrix(FDRM)...............................................................825.3.Obtainmentoffuzzystabilizedmatrix......................825.4.Classi?cationofbarriersusingFMICMACanalysis.............82
5.4.1.Autonomousbarriers.............................825.4.2.Linkagebarriers.................................825.4.3.Dependentbarriers..............................825.4.4.Independentbarriers.............................82
5.5.IntegratedISMmodeldevelopment........................836.Findingsanddiscussion.......................................83
6.1.Suggestedmeasurestomitigatebarriersprevalentinruralsector........................................................846.2.Uniquecontribution....................................856.3.Implicationsoftheresearch..............................857.Concludingremarks...........................................85
7.1.Limitationsofthestudy.................................867.2.Scopeoffutureresearch.................................86References......................................................86
1.Introduction
MahatmaGandhihasrightlysaid“Indialivesinitsvillages”.Indiaisacountryhavingdwellingsof6,00,000villages[1].Indeed,alargepartofIndia'spopulationresidesinruralareasandcon-stitutes72.2%ofitshumanresources[2].ItisassessedthatIndia'salmost1,25,000villagessufferfrommajorshortageofelectricitythroughouttheyearoutofwhich18,000–24,500villagesareclassi?edinextremeremotecategorythatmaylackelectricitysupplyfromthegridinthenearfuturealso[2].Thelackofaccesstoutilitygridbythepopulationinruralandremoteareasseemstobeprimaryimpedimenttooveralldevelopment[3].Consumptionofenergyinacountryorregionindicatesprosperityandstandardoflivingofitspopulation[4].Aftersomanyyearsofindependenceanddevelopment,basicenergyserviceslikeelectricityisstillfarfromreachof2billionpeopleinruralIndia[5–7].Availabilityanduseofenergyiscrucialforpovertyalleviation,socialupgradationofruralIndia,e-governanceandaddressingofdigitalagriculturesustainabilityindigitalera[8].Theaccessofenergywillsurelyleadtodevelopmentand“nocountrysofarhasmanagedpovertyalleviationwithoutincreasingenergyaccess”[9].Atthesametimeforensuringsustainabledevelopment,continuoussupplyofcleanandaffordableRenewableEnergySources(RES)ismandatorytoavoidfurtherenvironmentaldegradations[8].Althoughappreci-ablegrowthhasbeentakenplaceinpowersectoryetIndiaisfacingsevereelectricityshortageduetoincreasingdemandofenergyondailybasis.So,supplyofelectricityshouldalsoincreaseathigherratetopacewithcurrentandprojecteddemands.
Itistheprimeresponsibilityofgovernmenttosupplyenergyservicestotheconcernedpopulation.Inordertoachievethisobjective,developmentofrenewableenergiescanplayacrucialrole.BydevelopingenvironmentalfriendlyRES,thegoalofsus-tainabledevelopmentwouldalsobeachieved[10].Infact,byescalatingsolarenergyimplantation,developingcountrieslikeIndiawouldalsogetotherincentiveslikeneat,cleanandgreenenvironment,independenceofenergy,newopportunitiesof
72S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–88
employmentandbetterlivingstandardinruralandremotesectorsthatmayavoidmassivemigrationtourbanareas[4].
Thesunisanabundant,freeofcostandnonpollutingsourceofenergy[11,12].Theenergysourcethatdirectlyattributestosun-lightortheheatobtainedbyitisreferredassolarenergy.Itisavailableintwoformsi.e.directlyintheformofsolarradiationsandindirectlysuchaswind,biomass,hydroandoceanenergyetc.[13].ItisharnessedusingtwomethodssuchassolarPhotoVoltaic(PV)andsolarthermaltechnologyorConcentratedSolarPower(CSP)[14–16].Developingcountrieshavegoldenopportunityofharnessingthesun'senergy[4].SolarenergyisthebiggestsourceofRenewableEnergy(RE)supply.Effectivesolarirradiancethatreachesthesurfaceoftheearthhasrangeof0.06–0.25kW/m2fromhighesttolowestlatitudes[17].Indiahasaverageyearlytemperatureinrangeof25–27.5°CwithhighsolarinsolationwhichmakesIndiaasuitablecandidateofgeneratingelectricityfromsolarenergy[1].
Duringpasttwodecades,severalstudieshavebeenconductedbyvariousresearcherstoidentifyvariousbarriersinsolarpowerinstallationinruralsector.Kamalapuretal.(2001)presentedthefeatures,impactofelectri?cationandfeasibilityofSolarHomeSystems(SHS)incontextofruralsectors[2].Timilsinaetal.[17]presentedtechnical,economicandinstitutionalbarriers.Khareetal.[18]identi?edvarioussolarmanufacturingandothersissuesinimplementationofsolarpower.Kapooretal.[19]identi?edvarioustechnical,?nancing,market,policy,regulatory,costandlandbarriersetc.insolarenergydiffusionUrpelainenetal.[20]studiedthechallengesandopportunitiesinSHSforelectrifyingruralsectorinUttarpradeshstateofIndia.Ansarietal.[21]havefoundoutthecontextualrelationshipbetweenthebarriersaswellasthedrivinganddependencepowersofbarriersinsolarpowerinstallationinIndiabyusingtheInterpretiveStructuralModeling(ISM)-Matriced’ImpactsCroise’sMultiplicationApplique′eaUNClassement(MICMAC)methodology.ThehybridcombinationofISMandFMICMACcanfurtherrevealthehiddenrelationshipsamongthebarrierswhichlackitsproperutilizationinsolarpowerinstallations.However,inother?eldsit?ndswideadoptionsuchasKhanetal.[22]hasutilizeditforevaluationofenablersofsmartorganizations.Keepinginviewtheabovefacts,presentstudyfocusesonrecognitionofthebarriersofsolarenergypenetrationinIndianruralcontextusingintegratedmethodology.1.1.Researchobjectives
PresentinvestigationdealswiththeexplorationoftheissuesandchallengesintheimplementationofsolarpowerinstallationinIndianruralsector.Thespeci?caimsofthepresentinvestiga-tionareasfollows:
i.TorecognizethebarriersthathinderstheimplementationofsolarenergyinIndianruralsector.
Table1
InstalledpowergenerationcapacityofIndiainJan2015(inMW).
Source:Ministryofpowercentralelectricityauthority,GovernmentofIndia[24].Region
ThermalCoal
NorthernWesternSouthernEasternNorth-EastIslandsAllIndia
39,431.0061,039.5128,232.5027,427.8860.000.00
156,190.89
Gas5331.2610,915.414962.78190.001571.800.00
22,971.25
Diesel12.9917.48939.3217.20142.7470.021199.75
Total
ii.ToinvestigatethecontextualrelationshipusingISMtechniqueandfurtherusingFMICMACtechniqueforremovingthehiddenrelationshipamongrecognizedbarriers.
iii.Toexploretheprominenceofeachbarrierbyrankingitata
speci?clevel.
iv.Todeviseadecisionframeworkforformulatingstrategieswiththehelpofobtained?ndingsthatrevealthedependenceanddrivingpowerofeachbarrier.ISMmethodologyisusedtorecognizetherelationshipamongthevariablesofthesystemandMICMACanalysisisusedtovali-datetheobtainedmodel.FMICMACisusedfurthertoelaboratetherelationshipamongthebarriers.AfterthatintegratedISMmodelisdevelopedtovalidatetheresultsobtainedfromtheFMICMAC.ThehiddenrelationshipamongvariablescannotbeexploredusingISMandMICMACbecauseitlacktheprovisionofintroducinganyintermediatevaluefordeterminationofstrengthofrelationship[23].
Innutshell,inthepresentinvestigation,effortshavebeenmadeto?rstidentifythebarriersinpenetrationofsolarenergyinIndianruralsector.Finally,ISMandfuzzyapproachhavebeenappliedtounderstandtheprominenceofthesame.
Thepresentstudyisorganizedasfollows:Afterabriefintro-duction,Section2shedslightonpresentstatusofenergyscenarioinIndia.BarriersofsolarpowerdeploymentinIndianruralsectorhavebeenexploredinSection3.StepwisedevelopmentofISMmethodtodeterminelevelsofidenti?edbarriersisrevealedinSection4.FMICMACanalysisispresentedinSection5.Thedis-cussionsof?ndingswiththesuggestedmeasurestomitigateintensityofbarriers,uniquecontributionsandimplicationsoftheresearchareprovidedinSection6followedbyconcludingremarks.
2.India'scurrentscenarioinenergysector
Inthissection,thepresentscenarioofIndianenergysectorispresented.Energyplaysapivotalroleinachievingthemissionof‘MakeinIndia’and‘SwachhBharatAbhiyan’andrecentlylaunched“StartupIndia”.Literaturesurveyrevealsthattheenergyconsump-tionofIndiamayriseby132%whiledemandofelectricitymayrisethreetimesby2035[24].AsonJanuary2015,thenetcumulativeinstalledpowergenerationcapacityofIndiafromvarioussourcesis258,701.45MW.Theinstalledpowergenerationcapacity(inMW)ofIndia(inJanuary2015)hasbeentabulatedinTable1.
Presently,economyofIndiaismainlydependentoncoal.Lastyear,sixtypercentoftheinstalledpowerplantsofIndiawereentirelybasedoncoal.ItisevidentfromFig.1thatcoalbasedgenerationcontributes59%,dieselcontributes1%,gasbasedgen-erationcontributes9%,hydroenergycontributes16%,nuclear
NuclearHydroRESGrandtotal
44,775.2571,972.4034,134.6027,635.081774.5470.02
180,361.891620.001840.002320.000.000.000.005780.0016,666.787447.5011,398.034113.121242.000.00
40,867.435935.7711,271.0713,784.67432.86256.6711.10
31,692.1468,997.8092,530.9761,637.3032,181.063273.2181.12
258,701.45
S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–8873
CoalRenewableHydronuclearGasDiesel
Fig.1.InstalledenergyshareofIndia[25]
.
Fig.2.ShareofrenewableenergiesinIndia'senergymix[25,26].
energycontributes2%andrenewableenergycontributes13%onlyintotal.
TheREsectorinIndiaisgrowingbutitsfullpotentialisstillfarfrombeingrealized.TheREshareintotalenergymixtureofIndiaandtheamountofcapacitythatcouldhavebeenreachedifithadfullyutilizedpotentialofeachtechnologyhasbeendepictedinFig.2.
ThegreensegmentsdepictthealreadyinstalledcapacityandtheredsegmentsshowstheamountthatIndiacouldadd.Forescalatingtheutilizationofallformsofsolarenergyandincreas-ingtheREshareintheIndianmarket,GovernmentofIndia(GoI)haslaunchedvariousschemesandpoliciesfromtimetotime.Inthisdirection,theMinistryofNewandRenewableEnergy(MNRE)isworkinginsynchronizationwiththeIndianRenewableEnergyDevelopmentAgency(IREDA).In2008,theNationalActionPlanonClimateChange(NAPCC)proposedtolaunch8missions,theJawaharlalNehruNationalSolarMission(JNNSM)popularlyknownasNationalSolarMissionwasoneofthem.[1,13,27].Itaimedtoacceleratetheresearchactivitiesinsolarsectorandenhanceexistingskillsbyprovidingtraininginacademicinstitu-tions[1,28].ThisambitiousplancanmakeIndiaapioneerleaderinsolarsectorbyincreasingitsinstalledandgrid-connectedsolarcapacitybytheendof2022[29].Tofurtherstrengthenresearchactivities,GoIestablishedNationalInstituteofSolarEnergy(NISE)whichisundertheadministrationofMNRE,byempoweringtheexistingSolarEnergyCentre(SEC)[28].2.1.StatusofsolarenergyinIndia
Indiaisenrichedwithabundantofsolarenergybecauseitislocatedneartheequator[30].Ithassolarinsolationof4–7kWh/m2/day[31].Ithasaround200sunnydaysinayearwhichcanbe
approximatedto3000hofsunshinetoproduce5000trillionkWhofenergy[32,33].Largescalesolarpowerinstallationscanbeestablishedwithsuchapromisingpotential.Table2revealsthatIndiacouldproduceover1,900billionunitsofsolarpowerannuallywhichissuf?cienttoful?lltheentireannualpowerdemandevenintheyear2030(estimates)[34].
Certainly,Indianenergyde?citscenariowillbeaddressedwithef?cientharnessingofthisenergywithoutanyemissionsofcar-bon.ThepotentialofsolarenergyhasalreadybeenrecognizedbymanystatesinIndiaandothersarealsoinprocesstoful?lltheirenergyneedswithclean,environmentalfriendlyandeverlastingpotential.Itispredictedthatthesolarenergymighthaveanindispensibleroleinful?llingIndia'sfutureenergydemands[30].Moreover,themostpreciousgiftthatcanbegiventothefuturegenerationsissustainabilitywhichispossibletobeaccomplishedonlywiththeef?cientutilizationofsolarenergy[35].
AfterabriefoutlookofstatusofsolarenergyinIndiancontext,theforthcomingsubsectiondiscussestheneedofsolarpowerinruralcontext.
2.2.Needofsolarpowerinruralcontext
300Millionhouseholdsdepriveaccesstoelectricity,andthereof260millionaloneexistinruralareas.Literaturerevealsthatpresentlyruralandurbanelectri?cationrateisonly58.4%and90%respectively.Itisobviousfrom[7]thatruralcommunitiesdepriveenergyaccesstoreachbottommostpartofenergyladder.Duetoenergyde?ciency,amajorpartoftheIndianpopulationisstilldependentonsubsidizedkerosene,candles,traditionalbio-masslikewood,harvestresidues,charcoalandcowdung[38,39].Fig.3depictsthepopulationdependentonbiogasforcookinginbig5countries.
TheshareofIndia'spopulationis44%(836million),Chinais22%(423million),Indonesiais6%(124million),Bangladeshis8%(143million)andrestofAsiais4%(273million).Severaltimes,certainaccidentsalsooccurbecauseofspillageofkerosenefromwicklamps.Itisestimatedthat?re-relatedinjuriescauses300,000deathsatgloballevel(asreportedin2011).Speci?cdatainIndiancontextisunavailableduetonon-registryofnationalburns[38].Indoorairpollutioncauseshealthhazardsathighrateandriskofaccidentaldrinkingofkerosenealsoexists.Fur-thermore,itisestimatedthatIndiaemitsnearabout6.5million
Table2
StatusofsolarpotentialinIndiancontext.Source:[34,36,37]
Totallandarea(km2)
3,287,590No.ofsunnydays(average)250–300
Unitpotentialfrom1m24–7kwh/daySunshinehours(peryear)2300–3200Conversionef?ciency
15–20%1km2(Mnunitsperyear)1200.5%oflandused(km2)16,438Potentialunits(inbillions)
1972
IndiaPakistan
Rest of Developing AsiaChinaIndonesiaBangladesh
Fig.3.BiomassdependenceofBig5countriesinAsia[41].
74S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–88
tonnesofCO2yearlybecauseofkeroseneusageinruralhouseholds.
TheindoorairpollutionrelatedhealthproblemsareexperiencedinlargenumbersinIndia.Womenandchildrenbeartheburdenoftraditionaldirtyfuelandlieinthegreatestriskzonebecauseofhavingmaximumdomesticexposure[27,31,40].Alltheseproblemsresultsinagreatneedtodiversifyfossilfuel[6].TheusefulnessofsolarPVenergyisuniqueinruralareasthatarenotservedbyelectricgridsforprovidingbasicserviceslikeirrigation,refrigera-tion,lighting,communication,e-governance,variouspotentialapplicationsofInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT)indigitaleraandagriculturalsustainabilityetc.Theef?ciencyofsolarenergyismuchmoreascomparedtoexistingenergysourcese.g.fornightlighting,kerosene?ndswideapplicationintheruralsectorsofseveraldevelopingcountriesbuttheef?ciencyofPVbasedcompact?uorescentlightsystemishundredtimesbetter[40].Keepinginviewthepresentdiscussion,itisimperativetoaddresstheelectricityshortageissueusingsolarenergyinIndianruralcontext.
2.3.Usesofsolarpowerinruralareas
Solarpowerhasavastpotentialtochangethelivesofruralpeopletremendously.Solaroff-gridsystemscangivebetterstan-dardoflivinginruralareabyprovidinglightingandpowertoprimaryhealthcentersandschools[42].Waterpumpingsystemhasgainedwidepopularizationtomake12%annualPVproductionatgloballevel[10].Moreover,19%oflargestruralPVmarketliesindevelopingcountries.PVenergycanalsobeusedforagriculturalproductiveapplications.Furthermore,optimizationcanbedonetoprovideaneconomicsolutionbycombiningPVpumpswithdrip,other“ef?cient”irrigationtechniquesforhorticulturalpurposesandotherhighvaluecrops.PVelectricfencesarealsooneoftheotheragriculturalPVapplicationswhichareinwideruse.OtherinterestingapplicationsofPVsystemscanbeaerationpumpingforaquaculture,forcontrollingpest,?shandpoultrylighting.SmallPVvaccinerefrigeratorsarehighlyreliableandgetapplicationinveterinaryandhumanhealthsectors[43].ICTcanrevolutionizeIndianfarmingsectorbybene?tingsmalllandholders,margin-alizedandpoorfarmers.Eventhemostbasicinformationrelatedtoseeds,farmingpractices,climate,diseasesandpests,harvestingmechanisms,applicationoffarmmachinery,post-harveststrate-giesand?nallypropermarketingcanbeavailedwithICT[44].PVtechnologycanplayanindispensibleroleindiffusionofICTandachievingdigitalagriculturalsustainabilitytherebyachievingthemissionofdigitalIndia[45].AbriefsummaryoftentativeusageofsolarenergyinruralsectorisdepictedinTable3.
Despiteofhavingvariousambitiousschemesandpolicies,thepenetrationofsolarenergyisstillfarfromsatisfactionbecauseofexistenceofcertainbarriersinsolarpowerimplementationespeciallyinruralsector.
Tosumup,toaddresstheissuesofruraldevelopmentandtoachievemissionsof“MakeinIndia”,“DigitalIndia”,“CleanIndia,GreenIndia”and“Start-upIndia”andaccomplishmentofagri-culturalsustainability,itisimperativetorecognizethebarriersofsolarenergydeploymentandtheirprominence.
3.Identi?cationofbarriersofsolarenergydeploymentIndia'ssolarindustryisstillinitsdevelopingstagewithmanyissuesandchallengesinitsdevelopmentalpath.Thesebarriershinderandimpededueprogressintherealizationofpotentialofsolarenergy[52].Barriersofsolarenergydevelopmentarecon-textualandevolvedynamicallyovertime[52,53].Therefore,identifyingthesebarriersisvitalwhichhasbeenaccomplishedby
Table3
Abriefsummaryofpotentialapplicationsofsolarenergyinruralsector.S.no.PVApplicationinruralcontextResearchers1SolarHomeSystem(SHS)
[46,47]2Villageelectri?cation-streetlights
[43,48]3PVpumpingsystemforagriculturalandcattlewatering[47,49]purposes
4PVrefrigeratorforhealthclinics,agriculture,fruitpre-[43,47,49]servationandmeat/?sh/dairyetc.5PVbatterycharging[47]
6Waterpuri?cation[13,36,43]7Solargreenhouses
[49]8Dyersforagriculturalproducts[49]9Pest/mothcontrol
[43]10Handicraftsworkshops(smallwoodwork,bamboo,bas-[43]ketweaving,etc.)
11UtilizationofSolarenergyinvariousICTapplicationsfor[45]ruralareas
12Solarenergyharvestinginbarrenland(solarfarming)[50]13
Developmentofsustainablepracticesofstoringsolar[51]
powerforfutureusage
theassistanceofextensiveliteraturesurveyandexperts’opinions.Literaturereviewisavalidapproachthatassistsinformationofstrongfoundationofaninvestigationandbecomeanintegralpartofanyresearch[54].Duetolackofavailabilityofsuf?cientlit-eratureincontextofIndianruralsector,literaturefromsomeothersdeveloped/developingcountrieshasalsobeentakenunderconsideration.Moreover,somebarriersarecommonforruralandurbanareaslikeinitialcostofproject,ef?ciencyproblemandreliabilityissueswhicharealsoconsidered.
Sixteenbarriershavebeenrecognizedusingexhaustivelitera-turereviewviz.Requirementofhighinitialcapitalcost(B1),Longerpaybackperiod(B2),Lowef?ciency(B3),Reliabilityissues(B4),Requirementofstoragedevice(B5),Environmentalimplica-tions(B6),Lackoflocalfacilitiesandinfrastructuralissues(B7),Lackof?nancingfacilities(B8),Unavailabilityofproperradiationdata(B9),Marketuncertainties(B10),Reluctanceofpeopletonewtechnology(B11),Institutionalissues(B12),Policyandregulatorybarrier(B13),Lackoftrainedprofessionalsandtraininginstitutes(B14),Safetyimplications(B15)andLackoffocusedresearchanddevelopment(B16).Anexpertpanelconsistingofeightprofes-sionalssuchasthreeacademiciansdealingwithenergyrelatedissues,twoconsultantsdealingingreenenergysolutions,onemanagerassociatedwithsolarindustry,onescientistfromenergyresearchinstituteandoneNon-GovernmentalOrganization(NGO)memberworkinginruralareawasformed.Theseidenti?edsix-teenbarrierswerefurthervalidatedbytheexpertsininteractiveworkshopsandsub-categorizedinto?veimportantdimensionsofbarrierssuchasInvestment,Technical,Financial,Social&Envir-onmentalandMarketing&policybarriers.
Abriefsummaryofidenti?ed?veimportantdimensionsandbarriersunderlyingthemhavebeenpresentedinthesuccedingsubsections.
3.1.Investmentbarriers
Theseissueslinkwiththeproblemsacssociatedwiththeinitialcostrequiredtoestablishsolarpowerplantanditsrecovery.Itisevidentthathighinitialcost,longerpaybackperiodsandsmallrevenuestreamsenhancescreditworthyrisks[55].
3.1.1.Requirementofhighinitialcapitalcost
Amongidenti?edbarriers,majorbarrierisstillhighcostofsolarpowergeneration[56].Highcostofinputmaterialandcomponentsmakeinitialcapitalcostofsolarplantshigh.Theon-gridsolarenergyproductioncostisRs.18.44/unitinIndia.80%
S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–8875
ofsolarwafersutilizedforthemanufacturingofsolarcellsisimportedandthismakescosthigh[34].EffortsareunderwaytoreplacepolyurethaneusedformaterialframingbycosteffectiveEthyleneVinylAcetate(EVA)andPolyMethylMethAcrylate(PMMA)byglassutilizedasfrontmaterial[28]therebyreducingthemodulecostupto50%.Similarly,reductionofcostinthecaseoftheBalanceofSystem(BOS)componentsisalsonecessary.3.1.2.Longerpaybackperiod
Thedurationoftimerequiredforrecoveryofinitiallyinvestedmoneyforprojectdevelopmentistermedaspaybackperiod.Longerpaybackperiodisgenerallynotpreferredovershorterpaybackperiod[57].Asthecostofinstallingsolarpowerplantishighandatthesametimetheef?ciencyisalsolowsoit'spaybackperiodishigh[58].Mainlytwofactorsdecidethepaybackperiodi.e.locationofinstallationandorientationofsolarmodule[21].AlthoughthecostofmodulehasdecreasedascomparedfrompasttimebutthecostofBOScomponentshasnotreducedasmuchlikemodule[59].
3.2.Technicalbarriers
Itreferstothetechnologyrelatedissueswiththesolarpowerdevelopments.Itreferstothepoorinfrastructureinregardtohardwareandcompetencerequiredtohandleit[60].Thesebar-riersattributetopoordatabasemanagementforassessingRE,lowmaturitylevelofgreenenergiesandrequirementofenergystoringdevices[15,61–63].
3.2.1.Lowef?ciency
Atpresentef?ciencyofsolarpowergenerationisaround15–20%[34].Theef?ciencyconstraintis4–12%(forthin?lm)andbelow22%(forcrystalline)inthemarket,currently[59,64,65].Table4illustratesthebriefsummaryofPVtechnology.
Allthesolarenergyisnotconvertedtoelectricitybythesolarcells.Lossesareduetointroductionofdirt,moduleinef?ciency,temperaturerise,shadingbytreesandbuildings,voltagedropinconnectingwiresandprotectiondiodes[11,47,68].Moreover,BOScomponentslikeinverters,batteryandseveralequipmentsusedforpowerconditioningpurposesarealsohavelimitedperfor-mance[69]andincorporatetofurtherlosses.The?naloutputofelectricitywhichisavailabletotheenduserisonlyabout70%oftheratedoutput[47].
3.2.2.Reliabilityissues
InPVsystems,theinverterisstillconsideredastheweakestlinkandbelievedtobetheleadingcauseofenergylosses.Inverterfailureisahighfrequencyincidentwhichmaybecausedduetolackofexperienceinproductionstage,disturbancefromgrid,reclosing,andotherissuesrelatedtointerconnections[70].Inverterfunctionisassessedbytheef?ciencyofextractingmax-imumpowerwhichisadif?cultparameterdependentoninternal
Table4
AbriefsummaryofPVtechnology.Source:[66,67].TechnologyCrystallinesiliconSinglecrystalPoly-crystal
propertiesofinverteraswellasexternalparameterslikesolarcells,insolation,andclimaticconditions[11,71].Poorreliabilityandshorterexpectedlifeofsolarwaterheatingandspaceheatingsystemshavealsobeenreportedinfewcountries[61].Moreover,anotherreliabilityissueistoincreasethelifeofPVmodulesto25and30years[28].Themodulesavailableintoday'smarketarereliablebutforfurtherimprovements,collectiveresearchactivitiesandexposureprogramswithvariousmanufacturersisrequiredwhichcanuncovervariousreliabilityproblemsandunexpecteddegradationmechanisms[72].Lessreliablesolarbuildingsarenotpopularinmarketbecausebuildingdesignersarenotwellcom-petentandhavetodependonforeigndesigns[61].Reliabilityandperformancespeci?cationsaretheparameterswhichaffectpeopleperceptionandopinionregardingaproduct.Performancemea-surementishoworganizationsandcommonmanjudgethequalityofproductsanditsservices[73].
3.2.3.Requirementofstoragedevice
Solarenergyisintermittentinnatureasitisavailableindaytimeonly[61].Moreover,availabilityofthisenergyisdependentontheweatherconditionsandgeographicallocation[74].So,batteryisusedtostoretheenergyandutilizedasabackupsourceduringthetimeswhensunisnotavailable[21].Butduetoincorporationofstorageorbackuputilities,systemcostincreases[19].Alsoduringpeakdemand,itisnotpossibletoful?llrequirementswithRESwithoutusingenergystoringdevices.Thus,additionalsystemisrequiredtobeincorporatedwithRESsuchassolarandwindinordertoavoiduncertainsituations.3.2.4.Unavailabilityofpropersolarradiationdata
Deprivationofproperinformationregardingthesolarradiationstatisticsisalsooneoftherelevantconcerns.Itisawell-knownfactthatsolarradiationdataisprimerequisitetomakeasolarpowerprojectsuccessful.Itisnecessarytoobtaindetailedsolarandweatherconditionassessmentstogainfamiliaritywithprojecteconomicsofsolarpowersystems.ReliableresourceavailabilitydataismandatorytoselectasuitablesiteforREprojectbecauseRESaresitespeci?cinnature[61].Thus,itistheneedofhoursforboostingadoptionofsolarpowertechnologyinIndiatoestablishowndatacollectioncenterstomeasurepropersolarstatisticsofaplaceonspeci?clatitude&longitude[19,75].Lackoftrustfulinformationofsolartechnologymaycauseavoidanceofseveraltechnicaldetailsthatmightassistineradicationofhindrancesinrelationtocost,ef?ciency,andreliabilityofthesystems[76].3.2.5.Lackofskilledprofessionalsandtraininginstitutes
Onemajorproblemofestablishingsolarpowerplantsinremoteareasisthelackofskill,training,expertiseinrepairandmaintenanceofthesystem[55,77,78].Expertsarenotwillingtogoandworkintheruralsectorsunlesstheyareofferedsubstantialhigherperksandincentivesinadditiontoregularpay.Therefore,
Cellef?ciency(laboratory)(%)Moduleef?ciency(commercial)(%)Companiesemployingspeci?ctechnology
16–1714–1513–1512–14
BPSolar,GE/Astopower,Sanyo,Sharp,SunWorld
BPSolar,EvergreenSolar,KyoceraSolar,SchottSolar,Sharp,SunWorld
BPSolar,KanekaSolar,UnitedSolarOvonic,TeiraSolarBPSolar,FirstSolar
GlobalSolar,ShellSolar
Thin-?lmmaterials
Amorphoussilicon(a-Si)13Cadmiumtelluride(CdTe)17Copperindiumdiselenide(CIS)19
6–7–1010–11
76S.Sindhuetal./RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews62(2016)70–88
operatingandmaintainingsmallscaleprojectsinvillagesbecomestedious[15].
Theshortageofskilledprofessionalscanincludeavailabilityofskilleddesigner,serviceandsalesrepresentative,policyanalyst,scientist,engineer,teacherandresearcherthatisassociatedwiththesystemindirectorindirectway[79,80].Communicationandtrainingchallengesalsoexistsduetolanguagedifferencesamong?eldemployeesandlocaleswhichresultsinpoorskilltransfer[61].Installers’roleisveryimportantinthesuccessfuloperationofasystemasliteraturerevealthatafterinstallation;?vetimesmorethermallosseswerereportedascomparedtooriginalexpectationsincaseofsolarwaterheater.Similarly,thefailureratesforthesolarrefrigeratorhavebeenveryhigh[47].
Faultydesignandimproperinstallationisthemajorcauseoftheseproblems[61].Thiscreatesdistrustamongpublicaboutthetechnology[81].Therefore,thetraininginstitutesshouldbetheretoensureavailabilityofproperinstallersandengineersinthemarket.Sometargetshavebeensetincertainpoliciestoaddressthisvacuume.g.underJNNSM,targetissettoprovidetrainingto25,000techniciansatvillagelevel.Severalprogramslikefellow-shipsfortrainingengineersandscientistsinsolarenergyinworldclassinstitutionsandabroadareproposed[30].SuchinitiativesmustbeinclinedwithruralIndiacampaigns.
3.2.6.Lackoffocusedresearchanddevelopment
Atpresent,ResearchandDevelopment(R&D)intheareaofsolarenergyisnotonfastwheelsbecauseofabsenceofcollectiveandtargetorientedefforts.LowinvestmentinR&DofREproductsisoneofthemajorcauses[15].Indevelopingcountries,lotofsmallscale?rmsbelongingtorenewableindustryfailtogrowintomedium-sizedorlargecompaniestherebylackstherealizationofpositiveeffectsfromeconomiesofscale.Ithappensduetothelackofentrepreneursandmanagerswiththenecessaryskills,whichareoftenattributedtoagoodeducationalsystem[82].
ForfullyexploitationofpotentialofthesolarenergyinIndia,technicalinnovationsthatcanimprovethecurrentef?ciencyofsolarsystemsarenecessary.Keepinginview,governmentshouldmakecomprehensiveR&Dpoliciesbyprovidingincentivesinadditiontothecurrentsubsidyschemes.Forincreasingapplica-tionsofsolarenergy,R&Donstoragematerials,conceptsandBOScomponentsisalsoneeded[34].Thereductionofcostofsolarpowerhashighcorrelationandlargedependenceontheadvancementintechnological?eld.GoIisputtingeffortsinthesamedirectionsbyconstitutingSolarEnergyResearchAdvisoryCouncil(SERAC)foranalyzingthecurrentlyexistingresearchactivitiesinsolarsector.SERACwillprovideframeworkforcreat-ingasupportiveenvironmentforR&DactivitiesinthecountryinsynchronizationwiththeproposalsofJNNSM[30,55].3.3.Financialbarriers
IndevelopingcountrieslikeIndia,REbasedprojectsgethighlyaffectedbypoorinstitutionalframeworkfor?nancialactivities[15].Financialbarrierscoverlackofadequateinfrastructureanduncertain?nancingfacilitiesthatcreatehurdlesinthediffusionandpenetrationofsolarenergyinruralareas[80,83].
3.3.1.Lackoflocalfacilitiesandinfrastructuralissues
Itinvolveslandandresourceacquisitionissuesi.e.lessaccesstorequiredcomponents,limitedruralinfrastructurelikeroads,scatteredpopulationandlongdistancetransmission[78,84].Solarpowerplantslocatedinisolatedareasrequirebetterdesigningandconstructionofthesystemtomeetchallengesandissuesofthelocalconditions.Transmissioninfrastructureisrequiredtotrans-mitpowerfromthelocationofgeneration.Projectdevelopersarenotinterestedtoinvestinremoteareaswithdueconsiderationof
theabsenceofsupportinginfrastructureandgapfromnearbycenterestablishedforRET[85].Inadequateinfrastructuretopro-videinterconnectionofhassleproofmeteringandbillingsystemisalsoanimportantbarrier[55].Needoflarge?atlandforparabolictroughsystems[37]andcontinualsupplyofwaterinsolarthermalplantsforgenerationofsteamandcoolingtheturbinesaddst
久久建筑网m.kkreddy.com提供大量：建筑图纸、施工方案、工程书籍、建筑论文、合同表格、标准规范、CAD图纸等内容。